I. Finding the Origin of Incense: Following the Historical Haze
Incense has great meanings in the lengthy history of Chinese civilization and has ancient roots. People during that era honored their ancestors as well as the gods of heaven and earth. They heaped a lot of objects and burned them, seeing the offerings turn into ashes in the raging fire and the curl of incense smoke ascending to show their piety and ask for blessings. They firmly felt that this gift may reach the gods and ancestors in another realm. Strong proof of this old custom comes from many "Liao sacrifice" pits found by archaeologists from four or five thousand years ago. Among the excavated artifacts at the Hongshan Culture Site in Niuheliang, Liaoning Province, for instance, there were offerings including grains and animals. Burned, the smoke transported prayers from people to the heavens.
Regular records of the "Liao" sacrifice abound in the Yin Shang Dynasty's oracle bone inscriptions. "Offer sacrifices to the Supreme God of Heaven with Yin sacrifices, offer sacrifices to the sun, moon, and stars with real firewood, and offer sacrifices to Si Zhong, Si Ming, Feng Shi, and Yu Shi with You Liao," says "Zhou Li • Chun Guan • Da Zong Bo," which shows that the "Liao sacrifice" was a significant part and that the sacrificial rituals at that time had norms, different gods corresponded with different sacrificial methods. People aimed to get good fortune by means of the smoke and interact with the gods.
King Wen of Zhou developed the sacrificial ceremonies to heaven as time went in the Zhou Dynasty; the custom of burning incense in sacrifices kept on and grew steadily. From the first sacrifice to heaven, it grew progressively to include the sacrifice of ancestors, gods of mountains and rivers, etc.? More and more often appearing in many sacrifice events, incense became a crucial link tying mortals with gods, descendants with ancestors.
Important changes occurred in the incense culture during the Qin and Han Dynasties. Cultural interactions and integrations followed Qin Shi Huang's unification of the six kingdoms, and the use of incense's range grew. Emperor Wu of Han aggressively extended the boundaries, reinforced foreign trade, and spices including agarwood and storax from the Western Regions constantly flowed into the Central Plains in order to seek immortality and show homage to the gods. Additionally progressively useful and a part of court daily life are scent products. Good examples were the preferred concubines housed in the "Jiao Fang" in the palace and court officials carrying tongue incense in their lips whilst handling matters. The first incense burner in China, the Boshan burner, originated at this period. It was brilliantly formed, with overlapping mountains and residual clouds and mists. The smoke rose from burning incense, like in a fairyland, creating a romantic and enigmatic aura to the incense affair.
Though there were ongoing conflicts, Buddhism and Taoism predominated under the Wei, Jin, Southern, and Northern Dynasties, and the incense industry grew actively under the influence of religion. Both Buddhist Dharma gatherings and Taoism practice needed burning incense. People started combining different spices depending on "incense prescriptions" after thorough investigation on the properties of spices in order to create incense products with distinctive smells. Apart from daily incense smoking and religious events, these incense items might heal illnesses. That is why "compound incense" evolved.
Following the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the rich Tang Dynasty, the national strength was strong, foreign trade was booming, and Western Region spices were flooding the Silk Road in great quantities; southern spices also started to show up. Many spice traders emerged from the wealth of the trade, and the incense culture grew fully. For funeral decorations in the court, there were magnificent and opulent gold and silver incense tripods and bellows. Craftsmen of incense meticulously created court bait incense, suburban sacrifice incense, feast incense, etc. The urban business grew and entertainment events were abundant among the people. Burning incense in events like weddings, celebrations, and sacrifices became habit; it was utilized to enhance the living surroundings. Incense entwined throughout every facet of existence.
The incense culture developed throughout the Song, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism merged in the Song Dynasty, and polished intellectuals especially admired the incense ceremony. Considered the four arts of life were burning incense, hanging artwork, floral arrangement, and tea tasting. Perfect mix of scent with literature and beauty was achieved. Many poems and essays including Su Shi's "A small pavilion hides spring, a quiet window locks the day, and the painted hall is infinitely deep and secluded. The seal incense is burned out, and the sun's shadow falls on the curtain hook fully demonstrated the charm of incense." Attaching high value to the incense culture, the Yuan Dynasty's authorities instituted incense taxes and legislation to control the manufacturing and use of incense goods. The maritime trade was rich under the Ming Dynasty; there were more varieties of spices; and the manufacture of incense burners was superb and varied. One utilized extensively were coil incense and stick form of incense. The Qing Dynasty's incense culture merged with common practices. Burning incense to pray for blessings and offering ancestors became vital ceremonies at holidays such the Spring Festival and the Mid-Autumn Festival. The place of incense in daily life, religious ideas, and folk customs become ever more fixed.
From the ancient Liao sacrifice to contemporary folk customs, incense has passed through Chinese history bearing people's respect of gods and ancestors and their yearning for a better life. Witnessing the heritage and growth of civilization, it is a jewel of traditional Chinese culture still radiates special appeal today.
II. The Radiance of Religion: Lighting the Faith Fire
(I) Buddhism: The Triple Gem Turns the Heart to the True Incense of Precepts and Concentration
In the Buddhist culture, incense has strong meaning. When practitioners pially light incense candles and the curl of incense smoke rises, it seems to convey their firmness in observing precepts, the ethereal state of meditation, and the clarity of wisdom, which is the highest respect for the Triple Gem of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. Believers entering the Buddhist hall present a stick of incense before the Buddha statue in the noisy environment. Their thoughts slowly relax within the curling smoke, and the earthly problems seem to vanish so they may fully engage in the Buddhist teachings and grasp the road to emancipation.
The incense is abundant in the serious Buddhist Dharma meetings held in temples. Monks pray for favors by chanting scriptures; the incense smoke curls skyward, as though bridging the ordinary from the holy. With the incense smoke, believers' prayers float to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Some pray for their families' welfare, some for a flawless career, and some for spiritual emancipation. Hoping to obtain the loving protection of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, every wisp of incense smoke bears the expectations of humans. Moreover, Buddhist traditions hold that the virtue of presenting incense is quite exceptional. As said in the "Avatamsaka Sutra": "The incense of precepts, the incense of concentration, and the incense of liberation are like bright clouds covering the Dharma realm. Offering them to the countless Buddhas in the ten directions, those who see and hear will be universally perfumed and attain Nirvana." Offering incense to the Buddha can eliminate the problems of life and death and get purity and freedom.
(II) Taoism: Praying, Inheriting Life and Respecting Ancestors
Incense is a key medium utilized in Taoism, frequently in ancestor worship. Descendents piously burn incense in front of Taoist temples or family shrines; the curl of incense smoke rises, as if it might bridge the line between yin and yang to express respect and longing to ancestors. This honors not just the forebears but also provides a memorial for the country's future leaders, therefore guiding behavior.
Many Taoist ceremonial events, including the Jiao ritual in the Taoist temple, center incense as the offering. Burning incense and chanting incantations, high-ranking Taoist priests use the smoke of the incense to transmit messages to the gods. At this point, the incense represents the spiritual strength given by the gods, shielding adherents from hardships and calamities and guaranteeing flawless operation. Taoism also values the continuity and inheritance of life very highly at the same time. Burning incense to honor ancestors, family elders hope to transmit family values and customs from generation to generation so that descendants may remember their roots and carry on the glory of the family.
(III) Christianity: Prayer, celebration, and pious respect
In the Christian perspective, although its usage is less frequent than in Buddhism and Taoism, incense is of tremendous importance in particular events. The flickering candles in the church at Christmas represent the birth of Christ, therefore bringing the light of redemption to the planet. Gathering around the candles, believers sing hymns and express gratitude for God's grace. The holy fire shines brilliantly at Easter, representing that Jesus Christ overcame death and was resurrected, therefore urging Christians to follow their faith and desire the sublimation of their souls. At certain times the incense condenses the piety of believers and turns into a holy emblem of celebration and prayer.
iii. The Cultural Vein: Carrying the Authority of Custom
(I) Ancestor Worship: Link of Continuity in Family
Like a strong link preserving the continuity of the family, incense is intimately connected in traditional Chinese culture to ancestor worship. In the conventional setting, "breaking the incense" not only means the interruption of sacrificial behavior but also implies the heavy meaning of the obstruction of family bloodline continuity and the severance of inheritance, so reflecting the great emphasis on family reproduction and the prosperity of descendants in the traditional setting.
Sacrificial ceremonies are quite important in the conventional family and social system. Family members will meet in the ancestral hall or ancestral house, respectfully provide offerings, and pingly light incense on significant holidays, birthdays of ancestors, or death anniversaries. The younger generations will successively execute the three kneelings and nine prostrations to show their reverence for ancestors in a serious manner when the incense smoke curls up. At this period, the incense serves as a bridge between the two realms of yin and yang, through which the grace and protection of ancestors are imparted, the blood connection among family members is condensed, and the sense of clan identification and belonging takes root in the heart. For instance, the custom of ancestral hall sacrifice is still utterly intact in some southern historic towns. Clan members scattered all across return one after another to jointly sacrifice to ancestors in the ancestral hall, offer incense, pour wine, and present food during the Qingming Festival. Inheriting the family memories of hundreds of years, the ritual is serious and austere.
(II) Folk beliefs: hierarchy order and knowledge inheritance
In folk beliefs, incense becomes a major emblem for the inheritance of knowledge, abilities, and the building of hierarchy order among temples since it is endowed with the great significance of "incense inheritance". The passing of incense creates a strong link between ancient and modern temples, like an invisible cultural umbilical cord allowing the fire of religion to keep burning. Incense ash is often welcomed from the old temple and solemnly placed in the incense burner of a newly built temple. This event represents the passing on of the baton of faith inheritance, therefore the new temple acquires the historical legacy and divine protection of the previous temple.
This incense legacy also reaches to the level of traditional arts and cultural knowledge. In various ancient handicraft sectors including wood carving, ceramics, and needlework, a burning incense apprenticeship ceremony will take place when a master welcomes an apprentice. The apprentice honors the master while the master and apprentice present incense at the monument to the founder of the trade. Following that, the apprentice studies diligently as the master shares all of his abilities. The fragrance sees abilities handed down from generation to generation. Moreover, temples differ in hierarchy based on the success of incense. The temple gains greater respect the more rich the incense is; also, believers' frequency of worship increases. This motivates every temple to aim to inherit culture and spread ideas to draw new members and carry on its own incense inheritance.
IV. The Wings of Prayer: Approaching Beautiful Expectations Letting Fly
People's hearts contain lovely expectations and prayers connected with the rising curling incense smoke. Its scent may clean the air, as if it could wash away the dirt of the earth and provide pure breath into the hallowed area, thereby reflecting people's ongoing search of perfect and lovely wishes. The light and elegant stance of the incense smoke seems to carry the wishes of believers and float into the heavens, striving to transmit the earthly needs to the ears of the gods when it coils up.
Many religious rites and traditional sacrifice events involve believers piously lighting incense with a sense of wonder, therefore silently expressing their expectations for life. Some pray for good health and freedom from diseases and calamities; others hope for a seamless profession and a prosperous future; still others look forward family unity and happiness. Devoteful men and women pingly offer incense, close their eyes, and clasp their hands in temples, with continual prayers in their hearts. Offering incense and adoration, Taoists hope the gods would bless the nation with good weather and peace. Expecting their ancestors to guard the family's prosperity, descendants present incense to honor them before folk ancestral halls. Transmitted through incense, full of people's longing for the future, these prayers are the solace of the soul and the nourishment of the spirit.
V. The Enchantment of Art: Lighting the Motive Inspiration
In the area of art, incense has special appeal, inspiring artists and bearing strong cultural meanings and spiritual consequences.
Kang Erxu is a very creative incense maker. Using incense as a medium, he perfectly embodies the spirit of Chinese culture combining Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, so profoundly interpreting the Chinese philosophical perspective, world view, and life view in his works. Extremely startling is his circular piece "Drawing a Circle on the Ground as a Prison" with a 30-meter diameter. Made of incense, the 1.9-meter-high figure statue in the middle is set outdoors to burn. When the flames rise, the ancient charm and new ideas are entwined, showing not only the humane legal system of Dayu in ancient times to punish those who had committed crimes and promote their self-reflection but also conveying the modern appeal of eliminating confinement and liberating ideas, so integrating the great philosophies of "existence and non-existence give birth to each other" in Taoism and "the cycle of birth and death" in Buddhism. Viewers seem to be experiencing the strong collision between modernism and legacy in the ideological vortex of time and space interaction.
Especially more original is the "Yin Si" series. Made of incense, five life-size human bodies, seven genuine human skulls with bases, and one life-size human skeleton are all laid in outdoor grave pits to burn. Among the whirl of smoke, the past and the present seem to show before our eyes, repeating not only the attitude of respecting heaven and advocating rites in the era of King Wen of Zhou and the ancient concept of the unity of heaven and man but also evoking people's cherishment of life and longing for the future, so building a bridge of communication between the ancient and the modern allowing viewers to listen to the dialogue between history and the future.
These pieces constitute a spiritual baptism as well as a visual feast. With the special expressive power of incense, they cross the boundaries of time and space to interact with humans and extraterrestrial life, showing mankind's relentless transcendence of nature and life, so shining the spiritual core of incense culture on the art stage, building a bridge of communication between tradition and modernity, and between the East and the West, so demonstrating the charm of art without boundaries.
VI. Analyzing the Inheritance in the Present: The Changes from Ancient to Modern Times
The legacy and evolution of incense culture confronts before unheard-of difficulties and changes in the fast growth of modern civilization. On one side, the younger generation's values and way of life have evolved and the conventional understanding of incense has progressively disappeared. The hectic nature of metropolitan living causes people to lack time to perform the demanding sacrificial ceremonies. The seriousness and gravity of traditional sacrifices stand sharp contrast to the tendency of thinking of pursuing individuality, freedom, and fun. Many family ancestral halls and temples have so become empty, and the incense is less plentiful than it used to be. The customs handed down for thousands of years seem to progressively fade in the flood of the times.
Still, incense culture has special worth in contemporary society even if there are numerous challenges. Families find it the link of kinship and the emblem of cultural legacy. Elders guide the younger generation to present incense, share family history, and inherit family precepts and rules during family sacrifices so that the younger generation recalls the family roots, feels the cohesiveness of the family in the cloud of incense, and carries on family spirit. Regardless of where the family members are, some century-old families in Zhejiang will return to their ancient homes to sincerely sacrifice, give incense, and pray for favors during the Spring Festival and Qingming Festival, so inheriting the family's honor.
In the religious domain, incense still embodies the prayers and piety of adherents. Pilgrims offer incense and worship with wonder in temples and Taoist temples. Some people want blessings, some peace of mind, and some answers to uncertainty. The incense feeds people's hearts and sends the force of faith. Every Dharma gathering on Buddhist holy grounds like Wutai Mountain and Putuo Mountain brings people seeking spiritual solace in this holy environment together with incense smoke curling up and Buddhist chanting ringing.
Regarding cultural interactions, incense culture has evolved as a window displaying the beauty of classic Chinese civilization. Traditional sacrificial ceremonies and incense ceremonies make amazing appearances at worldwide cultural events and folk custom displays. Foreign friends bring luster to cross-cultural interactions, personally experience them, sense the great connotations of the old eastern culture,
Simultaneously, the idea of incense has been extensively borrowed in contemporary society, leading to several fresh phenomena. Stars and Internet celebrities have big fan bases in the entertainment business, and when their popularity is high, they are characterized.