I. Introduction
On the ancient and mysterious land of China, the culture of burning incense has a long and profound history, spanning thousands of years. It is like a dazzling pearl, radiating a unique and enchanting charm. Burning incense is not merely a religious ritual or folk custom but a vivid reflection of the deep cultural heritage of China. It carries the Chinese people's reverence for gods, ancestors, and heroes, their longing and hope for a better life, as well as their unwavering pursuit of spiritual solace and emotional connection. For American readers who are curious about and passionate about Chinese culture, understanding the origins and evolution of incense culture is undoubtedly an important key to unlocking the mysteries of traditional Chinese culture.
II. The Origins of Chinese Incense Culture
(A) The Beginnings in Primitive Society
The origins of Chinese incense culture can be traced back to the primitive society. In an era of extremely limited productivity and a rudimentary understanding of natural phenomena, people had great reverence for nature and firmly believed that there were supernatural forces governing the life cycles and destinies of all things. Fire, as a powerful and mysterious natural element, played a vital role in early human life. Not only did it provide light and warmth, dispel darkness and cold, but it was also used for cooking food and defending against wild beasts. As such, fire was regarded as a symbol of life force and spiritual power.
At the same time, certain plants or substances in nature, which emitted distinctive fragrances when burned, were believed by primitive humans to be a magical medium through which they could communicate with the gods. As a result, they began collecting these plants or substances and burning them during specific rituals to express respect for the gods, seeking their protection and blessings, and praying for favorable weather, abundant harvests, and the well-being of both humans and animals. For example, in archaeological excavations of ancient tribal sites, traces of burned incense or plants have been found, providing strong physical evidence of the presence of incense culture in primitive society.
According to the Shangshu ("Book of Documents"), "The offerings to the supreme deity and the ancestors were made through smoke, sending offerings to the gods of the mountains and rivers." The character "禋" in the text refers to offering sacrifices with smoke, indicating that smoke-based rituals existed in ancient times. Although the "incense" used then may not have been the refined products we use today, the essence of incense culture was already beginning to take shape.
(B) Development During the Pre-Qin Period
With the advancement of society, incense culture further developed during the Pre-Qin period, as the sacrificial rituals became more refined and standardized. In this era, when worshiping heaven, the ancient Chinese typically performed the "fan chai" ritual, burning large amounts of firewood to send smoke toward the sky, as a way of conveying respect and requests to the gods. As described in the Zhou Li ("Rites of Zhou"), "Burn firewood to offer sacrifices to the supreme god, to the sun, moon, and stars, and to the gods of various domains." Here, terms like "禋祀" (ritual offerings), "实柴" (burning firewood), and "槱燎" (burning incense) refer to sacrificial practices involving the burning of materials to produce smoke, demonstrating the concept of communicating with the gods through fire and smoke.
During the Pre-Qin period, in addition to burning firewood, various aromatic herbs and spices began to be used in sacrificial rites. For example, Qu Yuan's Li Sao ("The Lament") mentions various aromatic plants, such as "carrying the fragrant leaves of Jiang and Bi to weave into a wreath," and "drinking the dew from the wood orchid in the morning" as part of rituals. These plants were not only used for adornment but also played an important role in sacrificial ceremonies. They were believed to have pleasant fragrances that would please the gods and make the rituals more solemn and respectful. Although incense products as we know them today had not yet been developed, the use of aromatic plants in sacrificial rituals laid the foundation for the later development of incense culture.
III. The Integration of Chinese Incense Culture and Religion
(A) The Influence of Confucianism on Incense Culture
Confucianism has played an immensely important role in Chinese history, and its influence on the development of incense culture is profound. Confucianism emphasizes the concept of li (礼), or propriety, which regards ancestral worship and honoring elders as essential rites, reflecting the respect for family lineage and ethical values. In Confucian sacrificial ceremonies, burning incense became one of the key ways to express respect. By burning incense, people paid homage to their ancestors and elders, recalling their virtues and achievements, and praying for the prosperity of the family and the well-being of future generations.
For example, in traditional family ancestral hall ceremonies, on important holidays or family celebrations, descendants would gather and perform sacrificial rites following strict rituals. Burning incense was an essential part of the ceremony. They would light incense sticks and, with deep reverence, bow to the ancestral tablets, reciting words of gratitude and remembrance. This sacrificial ritual was not only a family gathering and inheritance event but also a concrete practice of Confucian ethical values in society. Through the act of burning incense, family members were closely connected, strengthening the family’s cohesion and unity.
(B) The Connection Between Taoism and Incense Culture
Taoism, as a native Chinese religion, has a deep-rooted connection with incense culture. In the Taoist belief system, there are numerous deities, believed to reside in different celestial realms or caves, and maintain close relations with the mortal world. Burning incense is one of the important methods for Taoists to communicate with these deities. The smoke produced from burning incense carries the worshippers' wishes and prayers, seeking divine protection, dispelling disasters, and bringing blessings.
In Taoism’s foundational text, the Dao De Jing, it is stated: “Dao gives birth to One, One gives birth to Two, Two gives birth to Three, and Three gives birth to all things.” In Taoist belief, incense is seen as a mystical substance capable of connecting humans to the Dao and the divine. It purifies the body and mind and serves as a medium to reach spiritual realms. In Taoist temples and altars, one can often see Taoist priests wearing robes and holding ritual tools, reciting prayers in the fragrant smoke before sacred altars, performing various ceremonies. Followers also come to burn incense and offer incense money to express their sincere devotion to the deities.
Moreover, Taoism has strict regulations and guidelines regarding the quality, types, and rituals of incense. Common incense used in Taoist rituals include sandalwood, agarwood, and frankincense, each with different uses and symbolic meanings depending on the specific ritual. When burning incense, followers must adhere to specific ceremonial etiquette, such as washing hands, cleansing the face, adjusting their clothing, and assuming a proper posture, to show respect for the gods.
(C) The Role of Buddhism in Advancing Incense Culture
Buddhism, which was introduced to China during the Eastern Han Dynasty, had a tremendous and far-reaching impact on Chinese culture, arts, and philosophy. Incense culture was also greatly enriched and advanced during the spread and development of Buddhism in China. In Buddhist teachings, burning incense is an important way of expressing reverence, symbolizing respect for the Buddha, reverence for the Dharma, and firm belief in the path of spiritual practice.
In Buddhist temples, the air is often filled with the rich scent of incense. Upon entering a temple, followers usually head straight to the main halls, such as the Great Hall of the Buddha, where they light incense sticks in front of Buddha statues, clasp their hands in prayer, bow in reverence, and chant sutras or Buddha’s name, praying for the Buddha's blessings and protection. Buddhist incense rituals are not limited to temple settings but are also performed during Buddhist festivals or major ceremonies, when large groups of worshippers participate in incense-burning prayers for blessings. For example, during the Bathing Buddha Festival, celebrated on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month, Buddhist temples hold grand ceremonies, and devotees come to burn incense and pay respects, creating an impressive and solemn atmosphere.
Buddhism also has unique views and regulations regarding the types and use of incense. In addition to common incense sticks and coils, Buddhism also uses precious incense materials such as sandalwood, frankincense, and camphor. These incense types are believed to have special fragrances and spiritual energy that help practitioners purify their minds, enhance wisdom, and accumulate good karma. Moreover, Buddhism has detailed rules regarding the number of incense sticks burned, the posture, and the sequence in which they are burned. Typically, three incense sticks are burned, representing the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.
Over time, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have all influenced and interwoven with each other, forming a unique Chinese incense culture. In Chinese society, people often do not adhere strictly to the rituals and guidelines of one specific religion but instead incorporate various incense practices and customs based on their personal beliefs and cultural traditions. This fusion has made incense culture even more diverse, deeply embedded in the hearts of the people.
IV.The time of Chinese incense burning culture
(1) Festivals and Special Dates
New Year's Day and Chinese New Year
The first day of the New Year is an extremely significant moment in China, where people typically visit temples or burn incense at home for blessings on New Year's Eve or the first day of the Lunar New Year. In temples, after the bell tolls on New Year's Eve, the faithful flock to the main halls, such as the Mahavira Hall, to light incense and candles before the Buddha statues, praying for peace, health, success, and family happiness in the coming year. Elders at home also lead the younger generation in burning incense at the family altar, reporting to ancestors and deities about the past year and seeking their protection for the new year. This custom reflects people's anticipation for a fresh start and their yearning for a good life, hoping that the incense ceremony will cleanse the old year's dust and welcome the good fortune of the new year.
The First and Fifteenth Days of the Lunar Month
In traditional Chinese customs, the first and fifteenth days of each lunar month are considered auspicious days suitable for burning incense and worshipping Buddha, free from taboos. On these days, temples often welcome a large number of incense worshippers. Some pray for health, others for career success, and still others for family harmony. It is believed that on these special days, deities are more likely to hear one's prayers and grant responses and blessings. In some places, special temple fairs are held on the first and fifteenth, featuring folk art performances, snack stalls, and more, creating a festive atmosphere.
Guanyin Bodhisattva's Birthday
Guanyin Bodhisattva holds an extremely high position in Chinese Buddhist beliefs and is regarded as a symbol of compassion and salvation. Guanyin Bodhisattva's birthdays fall on February 10th, June 10th, and September 10th. On these days, many Buddhist temples hold grand celebrations, attracting a large number of believers to burn incense and pray. They offer flowers, fruits, and other offerings before the statue of Guanyin Bodhisattva, lighting incense and candles to devoutly pray for protection for themselves and their families, disaster relief, and the fulfillment of wishes. In some places, believers also organize activities such as chanting and releasing of life to express their gratitude and respect for Guanyin Bodhisattva.
Other Important Buddhist Pilgrimage Dates
In addition to Guanyin Bodhisattva's birthday, there are many other important Buddhist pilgrimage dates, such as the birthday of Maitreya Bodhisattva (the first day of the first lunar month) and the day when Shakyamuni Buddha left home (February 8th). On these days, Buddhist temples also hold corresponding Dharma assemblies and memorial activities. The faithful visit temples to burn incense and worship, participate in Dharma activities, and listen to Dharma talks to enhance their understanding and practice of the Buddha's teachings. These Buddhist festivals and pilgrimage dates are not only important manifestations of religious faith but also a part of Chinese folk culture, enriching people's spiritual lives.
(2) Common Occasions
Temples and Taoist Monasteries
Temples and Taoist monasteries are important venues for Chinese incense-burning culture. These religious sites house numerous deities and Buddha statues, attracting believers and tourists from all over to burn incense and worship. With their unique architectural styles, serene environments, and solemn atmospheres, they provide an ideal space for people to communicate with deities and seek spiritual solace. In addition to daily incense-burning and blessings, temples also regularly hold various Dharma assemblies and religious activities, which often involve large numbers of participants and serve as important platforms for the spread and exchange of religious culture.
Families
In modern society, many families still maintain the custom of worshipping deities at home and performing incense-burning activities. The family altar typically houses ancestral tablets, the God of Wealth, Guanyin Bodhisattva, and other deities. Every morning or evening, elders light incense and candles at the altar for a simple worship ceremony, praying for the protection of deities for family safety, career prosperity, and filial children. Burning incense at home is not only an expression of religious belief but also a continuation of family culture and tradition, strengthening emotional bonds among family members and creating a warm and harmonious family atmosphere.
V. The Nuances and Significance of Chinese Incense-Burning Culture
(1) Nuances of Incense-Burning
Selection of Incense
In Chinese incense-burning culture, the choice of incense is crucial. Generally, people select high-quality incense to express respect for deities. High-quality incense is usually made from natural fragrances such as sandalwood, aloeswood, and musk, which have a pure, rich, and lasting aroma, producing less smoke and purer when burned. Inferior incense may contain a large amount of chemical additives, producing pungent odors and thick smoke when burned, which not only pollutes the environment but is also considered disrespectful to deities.
Preparation Before Incense-Burning
Before burning incense, people usually maintain personal cleanliness, such as brushing teeth and bathing, to approach the deities with a clean body. This reflects respect for the deities and the pursuit of the solemnity of the ritual. Additionally, there are certain nuances in dressing; people generally choose bright clothes with red as the main color, as red symbolizes auspiciousness, celebration, and warmth in Chinese culture. At the same time, it is best to avoid wearing black, white, or overly casual attire like shorts and slippers to prevent being seen as disrespectful.
Incense-Burning Posture and Etiquette
When burning incense, there are specific postures and etiquette norms. Generally, people hold the incense with their right hand and protect it with their left, lighting it and raising it to the level of their forehead, bowing to the deities. The number of bows is usually three, representing respect for heaven, earth, and the deities. The body should be kept upright, and the movements slow and solemn during the bow. After the bow, the incense is inserted into the incense burner vertically, without discarding it carelessly or at an angle. Throughout the incense-burning process, one must remain focused and free from distractions, avoiding leaving or whispering to others to prevent being seen as blasphemous towards the deities.
(2) The Significance of Incense-Burning
Expressing Respect and Gratitude
The most fundamental significance of incense-burning lies in expressing respect for deities and ancestors. In traditional Chinese culture, deities and ancestors are seen as protectors of the family and society, whose achievements and virtues deserve the admiration and remembrance of future generations. Through the ceremony of incense-burning, people pay them the highest respect, express gratitude for their contributions to the family and society in the past, and pray for their continued protection for the prosperity and happiness of their descendants.
Praying for Blessings and Fulfilling Wishes
Incense-burning is also an important way for people to pray for happiness and good fortune. Faced with various difficulties and challenges in life, people often go to temples or burn incense at home, pouring out their wishes to the deities and praying for help in realizing their desires, such as career success, academic progress, happy marriages, and good health. This act of praying for blessings and fulfilling wishes reflects humanity's yearning and pursuit of a good life. Although there is no concrete scientific evidence that incense-burning can directly bring about these effects, it provides psychological comfort and hope, enabling people to face difficulties with more confidence and determination.
Spiritual Solace and Practice
For many believers, incense-burning is also a way of spiritual solace and practice. In the busy and noisy modern society, people often face various pressures and confusions, and their minds can become tired and restless. In front of the curling incense in temples or at home altars, people can temporarily forget the troubles of the world, calm down, reflect on their inner world, and seek peace and balance for their souls. Through religious ceremonies such as incense-burning, chanting, and worship, believers can cultivate their focus, patience, and compassion, elevate their spiritual realm, and achieve spiritual growth and practice.
VI. Conclusion
Chinese incense-burning culture, as a traditional cultural practice with a long and rich history, has undergone thousands of years of development and evolution, closely intertwined with China's history, religion, society, and psychology. It originated from the primitive society's reverence and worship of nature, initially developed during the Pre-Qin period, and subsequently influenced by the religious cultures of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.